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Types of Foundation and their Uses.

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Types of Foundation and their Uses. Following are different types of foundations used in construction: Shallow foundation Individual footing or isolated footing Combined footing Strip foundation Raft or mat foundation Deep Foundation Pile foundation Drilled Shafts or caissons *Types of Shallow Foundations Individual Footing or Isolated Footing Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad foundation. The shape of the individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from the structure are carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on the column and safe bearing capacity of the soil. The rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences moments due to the eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces. For example, Consider a column with a vertical load of 200...
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Principle of Surveying and methods.

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Surveying principle and method in civil engineering. Definition:     Surveying is the process of determining relative positions of different objects on the surface of the earth by measuring horizontal distances between them and preparing a map to any suitable scale. Measurements are taken in the horizontal plane only. Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction and elevation. Leveling is a branch of surveying the object of which is to find the elevations of points with respect to a given or assumed datum and to establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum. Survey is performed to prepare a map of relative positions on surface of the earth. It shows the natural feature of a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways, etc. They may also include details...
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Environment and Ecology

Table of Contents Genral Ecology Air Pollution and control Water Pollution and Control Land Pollution  Noise Pollution General Introsuction, components of environment,  envoirenment degredation. Ecology Elements of ecology, Ecological balance and consequences of change,  principles of environmental impacts assesments. Air pollution and control Atmospheric composition,  energy balance, climate,  weather, dispersion, sources, and effects of pollutants, primary and secondary pollutants, greenhouse effects,  depletion of ozone layer.  standards and control measures. Water pollution and control Hydrosphere,  natural water,  pollutants their origin and effects,  river/lake/groundwater pollution standards and control. Land Pollution Lithosphere, Pollutants(Municipal, industrial, commercial, agricultural, hazardous solid wastes): their origin and effects, Colle...
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